van der Maaten, Laurens; Hinton, Geoffrey Visualizing data using t-SNE. (English) Zbl 1225.68219 J. Mach. Learn. Res. 9, 2579-2605 (2008). Summary: We present a new technique called “t-SNE” that visualizes high-dimensional data by giving each datapoint a location in a two or three-dimensional map. The technique is a variation of stochastic neighbor embedding that is much easier to optimize, and produces significantly better visualizations by reducing the tendency to crowd points together in the center of the map. t-SNE is better than existing techniques at creating a single map that reveals structure at many different scales. This is particularly important for high-dimensional data that lie on several different, but related, low-dimensional manifolds, such as images ofobjects from multiple classes seen from multiple viewpoints. For visualizing the structure of very large data sets, we show how t-SNE can use random walks on neighborhood graphs to allow the implicit structure of all of the data to influence the way in which a subset of the data is displayed. We illustrate the performance of t-SNE on a wide variety of data sets and compare it with many other non-parametric visualization techniques, including Sammon mapping, Isomap, and locally linear embedding. The visualizations produced by t-SNE are significantly better than those produced by the other techniques on almost all of the data sets. Cited in 3 ReviewsCited in 375 Documents MSC: 68T05 Learning and adaptive systems in artificial intelligence Keywords:visualization; dimensionality reduction; manifold learning; embedding algorithms; multidimensional scaling Software:t-SNE × Cite Format Result Cite Review PDF Full Text: Link